maˈtʼuww

Writing Scripts Descended from Egyptian Hieroglyphs

× About Glossary Credits

☰

Square Maalouli

Abjad^{citation needed}
??? - ???

Right-to-left^{citation needed}

Square_Aramaic

Languages¹

Western Neo-Aramaic (Siryon)

Places²

Maaloula and Jubb'adin in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains of western Syria

Abecedary¹

Square Maalouli letter Alef × Square Maalouli letter Alef a, e, i, o, u, ā, ē, ī, ō, ū IPA: ∅ Derived from Hebrew letter Alef (א).	Square Maalouli letter Bet × Square Maalouli letter Bet v IPA: /v/ Derived from Hebrew letter Bet (ב).	Square Maalouli letter Gimel × Square Maalouli letter Gimel g IPA: /ɣ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Gimel (ג).	Square Maalouli letter Dalet × Square Maalouli letter Dalet d IPA: /ð/ Derived from Hebrew letter Dalet (ד).	Square Maalouli letter He × Square Maalouli letter He h IPA: /h/ Derived from Hebrew letter He (ה).
Square Maalouli letter Vav × Square Maalouli letter Waw w IPA: /w/ Derived from Hebrew letter Vav (ו).	Square Maalouli letter Zayin × Square Maalouli letter Zayin z IPA: /z/ Derived from Hebrew letter Zayin (ז).	Square Maalouli letter Ḥet × Square Maalouli letter Ḥet ḥ IPA: /ħ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Chet (ח).	Square Maalouli letter Ṭet × Square Maalouli letter Ṭet ṭ IPA: /tˤ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tet (ט).	Square Maalouli letter Yod × Square Maalouli letter Yod y IPA: /j/ Derived from Hebrew letter Yod (י).
Square Maalouli letter Kaf × Square Maalouli letter Kaf ẖ IPA: /x/ Derived from Hebrew letter Kaf (כ).	Square Maalouli letter Kaf (final) × Square Maalouli letter Kaf (final) ẖ IPA: /x/ Derived from Hebrew letter Kaf (final) (ך).	Square Maalouli letter Lamed × Square Maalouli letter Lamed l IPA: /l/ Derived from Hebrew letter Lamed (ל).	Square Maalouli letter Mem × Square Maalouli letter Mem m IPA: /m/ Derived from Hebrew letter Mem (מ).	Square Maalouli letter Mem (final) × Square Maalouli letter Mem (final) m IPA: /m/ Derived from Hebrew letter Mem (final) (ם).
Square Maalouli letter Nun × Square Maalouli letter Nun n IPA: /n/ Derived from Hebrew letter Nun (נ).	Square Maalouli letter Nun (final) × Square Maalouli letter Nun (final) n IPA: /n/ Derived from Hebrew letter Nun (final) (ן).	Square Maalouli letter Samekh × Square Maalouli letter Samekh s IPA: /s/ Derived from Hebrew letter Samekh (ס).	Square Maalouli letter Ayin × Square Maalouli letter Ayin ҁ IPA: /ʕ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Ayin (ע).	Square Maalouli letter Pe × Square Maalouli letter Pe f IPA: /f/ Derived from Hebrew letter Pe (פ).
Square Maalouli letter Pe (final) × Square Maalouli letter Pe (final) f IPA: /f/ Derived from Hebrew letter Pe (final) (ף).	Square Maalouli letter Tsadi × Square Maalouli letter Tsadi ṣ IPA: /sˤ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tsadi (צ).	Square Maalouli letter Tsadi (final) × Square Maalouli letter Tsadi (final) ṣ IPA: /sˤ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tsadi (final) (ץ).	Square Maalouli letter Qof × Square Maalouli letter Qof q IPA: /k/~/ḳ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Qof (ק).	Square Maalouli letter Resh × Square Maalouli letter Resh r IPA: /r/ Derived from Hebrew letter Resh (ר).
Square Maalouli letter Shin × Square Maalouli letter Shin š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Shin (ש).	Square Maalouli letter Tav × Square Maalouli letter Tav ṯ Derived from Hebrew letter Tav (ת).

Script comparison^1,4-6

Writing Script		Head of ox		House plan		Throw stick		Nile tilapia			Man with arms raised				Pear shaped mace				Two diagonal strokes	Plan of rectangular enclosure		Heart and trachea		Arm with downward facing palm		Hand	Crook	Water ripple	Cobra	Reed column		Eye		Mouth	Rush with shoots			Cord on stick	Head	Bow						Crossed sticks
Egyptian Hieroglyphs	Logography 32 c. BCE - 4 c. CE	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F1 𓃾 Head of Ox Ideogram for: kꜣ “cattle” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /kaʀ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /kaʀ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /kaʔ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /kɑ/ Conventional Anglicisation: ka		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. O1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. O1 𓉐 House plan Phonogram pr for: pr “house” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpaːɾuw/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpaːɾuw/ Reconstructed Medio-Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpaːɾəʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /poːɾ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /pɛr/ Conventional Anglicisation: per		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T14 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T14 𓌙 Throw stick Determinative for “foreign” for: qmꜣ “create” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /kɛmɑ/ Conventional Anglicisation: qema Ideogram in: ꜥꜣm “Asiatics” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /ɑːʔɑm/ Conventional Anglicisation: aam		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. K1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. K1 𓆛 Bulti fish Phonogram in for: int “bulti”			Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. A28 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. A28 𓀠 Man with arms raised Determinative for: ḥꜥi “rejoice”				Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T3 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T3 𓌉 Pear shaped mace Phonogram ḥḏ for: ḥḏ “mace”				Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z4 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z4 𓏭 Two diagonal strokes Determinative for duality	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. 06 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. O6 𓉗 Plan of rectangular enclosure Ideogram for: ḥwt “temple, tomb, enclosure” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈħaːwit/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈħaːwiʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈħoː(wə)/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /ħuːt/ Conventional Anglicisation: hut		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F35 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F35 𓄤 Heart and windpipe Phonogram nfr for: nfr “good, beautiful” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnaːfiɾ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnaːfiʔ/ Reconstructed Medio-Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnaːfə/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnoːfə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /nɛfɛr/ Conventional Anglicisation: nefer		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D42 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D42 𓂣 Arm with downward facing palm Determinative or ideogram for: mḥ “cubit” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /mɛħ/ Conventional Anglicisation: meh		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D46 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D46 𓂧 Hand Phonogram d Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼ/, /t͡ʃʼ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼ/, /t͡ʃʼ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d/ Ideogram for: ḏrt “hand” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈcʼaːɾat/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈtʼaːɾaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈtʼoːɾə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d͡ʒɛrɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: djeret	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. S39 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. S39 𓋿 Crook Phonogram ꜥwt for: ꜥwt “flock” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /ɑːuːt/ Conventional Anglicisation: aut	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. N35 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. N35 𓈖 Water ripple Phonogram n Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /n/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /n/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /n/, /l/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /n/	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. I10 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. I10 𓆓 Cobra Phonogram ḏ Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /cʼ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼ/, /tʼ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼ/, /tʼ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d͡ʒ/	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. R11 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. R11 𓊽 Reed column Phonogram ḏd for: ḏd “stable” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /cʼaːtʼ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼaːʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼoːʔ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d͡ʒɛd/ Conventional Anglicisation: djed		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D4 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D4 𓁹 Eye Phonogram for: jrj “to do, make” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾit/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾiʔ/ Reconstructed Medio-Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈʔiːɾaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈʔiːɾə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /iri/ Conventional Anglicisation: iri Ideogram for: jrt “eye” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾat/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈʔiːɾə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /irɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: iret		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D21 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D21 𓂋 Mouth Phonogram r Ideogram for: r “mouth” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ɾ/, /l/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ɾ/, /l/, /ʔ/, /j/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ɾ/, /l/, /ʔ/, /j/, ∅ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /r/	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. M22 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. M22 𓇑 Rush with roots Phonogram nḫb for: nḫbt “germination” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /nɛxbɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: nekhbet			Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. V24 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. V24 𓎗 Cord on stick Phonogram wḏ for: wḏ “command, decree” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /wɛd͡ʒ/ Conventional Anglicisation: wedj	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D1 𓁶 Head Phonogram tp Determinative or ideogram for: tp “head” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼap/, or possibly /cʼap/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼap/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼap/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /tɛp/ Conventional Anglicisation: tepw	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T9a × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T9a 𓌓 Bow Phonogram pd/pḏ for: pḏt “bow” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpiːcʼat/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpiːtʼaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpiːtʼə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /pɛd͡ʒɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: pedjet						Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z9 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z9 𓏴 Crossed sticks Phonogram swꜣ for: swꜣ “pass”
Hebrew (Parent)	Abjad c. 2/1 BCE - Present	Hebrew letter Alef × Hebrew letter Alef א אָלֶף a IPA: [a] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Ālaph (𐡀). Numerical value: 1		Hebrew letter Bet × Hebrew letter Bet ב בֵית v IPA: [v] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Bēth (𐡁). Numerical value: 2		Hebrew letter Gimel × Hebrew letter Gimel ג גִימֵל g IPA: [ɣ] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Gāmal (𐡂). Numerical value: 3		Hebrew letter Dalet × Hebrew letter Dalet ד דָלֶת d IPA: [ð] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Dālath (𐡃). Numerical value: 4			Hebrew letter He × Hebrew letter He ה הֵא h IPA: [h]~[e] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Hē (𐡄). Numerical value: 5				Hebrew letter Vav × Hebrew letter Vav ו וָו v IPA: [v] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Waw (𐡅). Numerical value: 6				Hebrew letter Zayin × Hebrew letter Zayin ז זַיִן z IPA: [z] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Zain (𐡆). Numerical value: 7	Hebrew letter Chet × Hebrew letter Chet ח חֵית ch IPA: [χ] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Khēth (𐡇). Numerical value: 8		Hebrew letter Tet × Hebrew letter Tet ט טֵית t IPA: [t] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Ṭēth (𐡈). Numerical value: 9		Hebrew letter Yod × Hebrew letter Yod י יוֹד y IPA: [j] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Iodh (𐡉). Numerical value: 10		Hebrew letter Kaf × Hebrew letter Kaf כ כַף k IPA: [χ] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Kāph (𐡊). Numerical value: 20 Hebrew letter Kaf (final) × Hebrew letter Kaf (final) ך כַף סוֹפִית k IPA: [x]~[χ] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Kāph (𐡊). Numerical value: 20 or 500	Hebrew letter Lamed × Hebrew letter Lamed ל לָמֶד l IPA: [l] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Lāmadh (𐡋). Numerical value: 30	Hebrew letter Mem × Hebrew letter Mem מ מֵם m IPA: [m] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Mem (𐡌). Numerical value: 40 Hebrew letter Mem (final) × Hebrew letter Mem (final) ם מֵם סוֹפִית m IPA: [m] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Mem (𐡌). Numerical value: 40 or 600	Hebrew letter Nun × Hebrew letter Nun נ נוּן n IPA: [n] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Nun (𐡍). Numerical value: 50 Hebrew letter Nun (final) × Hebrew letter Nun (final) ן נוּן סוֹפִית n IPA: [n] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Nun (𐡍). Numerical value: 50 or 700			Hebrew letter Samekh × Hebrew letter Samekh ס סָמֶךְ s IPA: [s] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Semkath (𐡎). Numerical value: 60		Hebrew letter Ayin × Hebrew letter Ayin ע עַיִן ʿ IPA: [o]~[ō], ∅ Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Ayin (𐡏). Numerical value: 70		Hebrew letter Pe × Hebrew letter Pe פ פֵא f IPA: [f] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Pē (𐡐). Numerical value: 80 Hebrew letter Pe (final) × Hebrew letter Pe (final) ף פֵא סוֹפִית f IPA: [f] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Pē (𐡐). Numerical value: 80 or 800	Hebrew letter Tsadi × Hebrew letter Tsadi צ צָדִי ts IPA: [ts] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Ṩādhē (𐡑). Numerical value: 90 Hebrew letter Tsadi (final) × Hebrew letter Tsadi (final) ץ צָדִי סוֹפִית ts IPA: [ts] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Ṩādhē (𐡑). Numerical value: 90 or 900			Hebrew letter Qof × Hebrew letter Qof ק קוֹף k IPA: [k] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Qoph (𐡒). Numerical value: 100	Hebrew letter Resh × Hebrew letter Resh ר רֵישׁ r IPA: [ʁ] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Rēš (𐡓). Numerical value: 200	Hebrew letter Shin × Hebrew letter Shin ש שִׁׂי sh IPA: [ʃ] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Šīn (𐡔). Numerical value: 300						Hebrew letter Tav × Hebrew letter Tav ת תָו t IPA: [t] Derived from Imperial Aramaic letter Taw (𐡕). Numerical value: 400
Square Maalouli	Abjad ??? - ???	Square Maalouli letter Alef × Square Maalouli letter Alef a, e, i, o, u, ā, ē, ī, ō, ū IPA: ∅ Derived from Hebrew letter Alef (א).		Square Maalouli letter Bet × Square Maalouli letter Bet v IPA: /v/ Derived from Hebrew letter Bet (ב).		Square Maalouli letter Gimel × Square Maalouli letter Gimel g IPA: /ɣ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Gimel (ג).		Square Maalouli letter Dalet × Square Maalouli letter Dalet d IPA: /ð/ Derived from Hebrew letter Dalet (ד).			Square Maalouli letter He × Square Maalouli letter He h IPA: /h/ Derived from Hebrew letter He (ה).				Square Maalouli letter Vav × Square Maalouli letter Vav w IPA: /w/ Derived from Hebrew letter Vav (ו).				Square Maalouli letter Zayin × Square Maalouli letter Zayin z IPA: /z/ Derived from Hebrew letter Zayin (ז).	Square Maalouli letter Ḥet × Square Maalouli letter Ḥet ḥ IPA: /ħ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Chet (ח).		Square Maalouli letter Ṭet × Square Maalouli letter Ṭet ṭ IPA: /tˤ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tet (ט).		Square Maalouli letter Yod × Square Maalouli letter Yod y IPA: /j/ Derived from Hebrew letter Yod (י).		Square Maalouli letter Kaf × Square Maalouli letter Kaf ẖ IPA: /x/ Derived from Hebrew letter Kaf (כ). Square Maalouli letter Kaf (final) × Square Maalouli letter Kaf (final) ẖ IPA: /x/ Derived from Hebrew letter Kaf (final) (ך).	Square Maalouli letter Lamed × Square Maalouli letter Lamed l IPA: /l/ Derived from Hebrew letter Lamed (ל).	Square Maalouli letter Mem × Square Maalouli letter Mem m IPA: /m/ Derived from Hebrew letter Mem (מ). Square Maalouli letter Mem (final) × Square Maalouli letter Mem (final) m IPA: /m/ Derived from Hebrew letter Mem (final) (ם).	Square Maalouli letter Nun × Square Maalouli letter Nun n IPA: /n/ Derived from Hebrew letter Nun (נ). Square Maalouli letter Nun (final) × Square Maalouli letter Nun (final) n IPA: /n/ Derived from Hebrew letter Nun (final) (ן).	Square Maalouli letter Samekh × Square Maalouli letter Samekh s IPA: /s/ Derived from Hebrew letter Samekh (ס).		Square Maalouli letter Ayin × Square Maalouli letter Ayin ҁ IPA: /ʕ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Ayin (ע).		Square Maalouli letter Pe × Square Maalouli letter Pe f IPA: /f/ Derived from Hebrew letter Pe (פ). Square Maalouli letter Pe (final) × Square Maalouli letter Pe (final) f IPA: /f/ Derived from Hebrew letter Pe (final) (ף).	Square Maalouli letter Tsadi × Square Maalouli letter Tsadi ṣ IPA: /sˤ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tsadi (צ). Square Maalouli letter Tsadi (final) × Square Maalouli letter Tsadi (final) ṣ IPA: /sˤ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tsadi (final) (ץ).			Square Maalouli letter Qof × Square Maalouli letter Qof q IPA: /k/~/ḳ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Qof (ק).	Square Maalouli letter Resh × Square Maalouli letter Resh r IPA: /r/ Derived from Hebrew letter Resh (ר).	Square Maalouli letter Shin × Square Maalouli letter Shin š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Shin (ש).						Square Maalouli letter Tav × Square Maalouli letter Tav ṯ IPA: /θ/ Derived from Hebrew letter Tav (ת).

Lineage^{6,2, citation needed}

Egyptian Hieroglyphs
↳Hieratic Egyptian
↳Proto-Sinaitic
↳Phoenician
↳Imperial Aramaic
↳Kharoṣṭhī
↳Early/Ashokan Brahmi
↳Hebrew
↳Square Maalouli

References

1. AntonSamuel. (2017). Western Neo-Aramaic square alphabet. Wikimedia.org. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Western_Neo-Aramaic_Square_Alphabet.jpg
2. Brock, S. P. (2017). An introduction to Syriac studies. Gorgias Press.
4. Colless, Brian E (1990). "The proto-alphabetic inscriptions of Sinai". Abr-Nahrain / Ancient Near Eastern Studies. 28: 1–52. doi:10.2143/anes.28.0.525711
5. Colless, Brian E (1991). "The proto-alphabetic inscriptions of Canaan". Abr-Nahrain / Ancient Near Eastern Studies. 29: 18–66. doi:10.2143/anes.29.0.525718
6. Daniels, P. T., & Bright, W. (Eds.). (1996). The world’s writing systems. Oxford University Press.
7. Allen, J. P. (2014). Middle Egyptian: An introduction to the language and culture of hieroglyphs. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
8. Albright, William F. (1966). The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and their Decipherment.
9. Davidson, L. (2022, March 18). How the Phoenician Alphabet Revolutionised Language. Retrieved July 15, 2022, from historyhit.com website: https://www.historyhit.com/how-the-phoenician-alphabet-revolutionised-language/
10. Howard, M. C. (2012). Transnationalism in ancient and medieval societies: The role of cross-border trade and travel. McFarland & Company.
11. Saenz-Badillos, A. (1996). A history of the Hebrew language (J. Elwolde, Trans.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.