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Writing Scripts Descended from Egyptian Hieroglyphs

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Avestan

𐬛𐬉𐬥 𐬛𐬉𐬠𐬍𐬭𐬉

Alphabet¹
5/6 c. CE - Present¹

Right-to-left¹

Book_Pahlavi

Languages¹

Avestan and Pazend (middle Persian)

Places¹

Liturgically in Zoroastrianism

Abecedary¹

Avestan letter A × Avestan letter A 𐬀 a IPA: /a/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Aleph-Heth.	Avestan letter Aa × Avestan letter Aa 𐬁 ā IPA: /aː/ Derived from Avestan letter A (𐬀).	Avestan letter Ao × Avestan letter Ao 𐬂 å IPA: /ɒ/ Derived from Avestan letter A (𐬀).	Avestan letter Aao × Avestan letter Aao 𐬃 ā̊ IPA: /ɒː/ Derived from Avestan letter Ao (𐬂).	Avestan letter An × Avestan letter An 𐬄 ą IPA: /ã/
Avestan letter Aan × Avestan letter Aan 𐬅 ą̇ IPA: /ã/	Avestan letter Ae × Avestan letter Ae 𐬆 ə IPA: /ə/ Derived from Cursive Greek letter Epsilon (ε)..	Avestan letter Aee × Avestan letter Aee 𐬇 ə̄ IPA: /əː/ Derived from Avestan letter Ae (𐬆).	Avestan letter E × Avestan letter E 𐬈 e IPA: /e/	Avestan letter Ee × Avestan letter Ee 𐬉 ē IPA: /eː/ Derived from Avestan letter Ee (𐬉).
Avestan letter O × Avestan letter O 𐬊 o IPA: /ɔ/	Avestan letter Oo × Avestan letter Oo 𐬋 ō IPA: /oː/ Derived from Avestan letter O (𐬊).	Avestan letter I × Avestan letter I 𐬌 i IPA: /ɪ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh.	Avestan letter Ii × Avestan letter Ii 𐬍 ī IPA: /iː/ Derived from Avestan letter I (𐬌).	Avestan letter U × Avestan letter U 𐬎 u IPA: /ʊ/
Avestan letter Uu × Avestan letter Uu 𐬏 ū IPA: /uː/ Derived from Avestan letter U (𐬎).	Avestan letter Ke × Avestan letter Ke 𐬐 k IPA: /k/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Kaph.	Avestan letter Xe × Avestan letter Xe 𐬑 x IPA: /x/	Avestan letter Xye × Avestan letter Xye 𐬒 x́ IPA: /xʲ/, /ç/	Avestan letter Xve × Avestan letter Xve 𐬓 xᵛ IPA: /xʷ/ Resembles Book Pahlavi.
Avestan letter Ge × Avestan letter Ge 𐬔 g IPA: /g/	Avestan letter Gge × Avestan letter Gge 𐬕 ġ IPA: /ɡʲ/, /ɟ/	Avestan letter Ghe × Avestan letter Ghe 𐬖 γ IPA: /ɣ/ Resembles Psalter Pahlavi letter Kaph (𐮉)..	Avestan letter Ce × Avestan letter Ce 𐬗 c IPA: /t͡ʃ/	Avestan letter Je × Avestan letter Je 𐬘 j IPA: /d͡ʒ/
Avestan letter Te × Avestan letter Te 𐬙 t IPA: /t/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Taw.	Avestan letter The × Avestan letter The 𐬚 θ IPA: /θ/	Avestan letter De × Avestan letter De 𐬛 d IPA: /d/ Resembles Book Pahlavi.	Avestan letter Dhe × Avestan letter Dhe 𐬜 δ IPA: /ð/	Avestan letter Tte × Avestan letter Tte 𐬝 t̰ IPA: /t̚/
Avestan letter Pe × Avestan letter Pe 𐬞 p IPA: /p/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Pe.	Avestan letter Fe × Avestan letter Fe 𐬟 f IPA: /f/ Derived from Avestan letter Pe (𐬞).	Avestan letter Be × Avestan letter Be 𐬠 b IPA: /b/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Beth.	Avestan letter Bhe × Avestan letter Bhe 𐬡 β IPA: /β/	Avestan letter Nge × Avestan letter Nge 𐬢 ŋ IPA: /ŋ/
Avestan letter Ngye × Avestan letter Ngye 𐬣 ŋ́ IPA: /ŋʲ/	Avestan letter Ngve × Avestan letter Ngve 𐬤 ŋᵛ IPA: /ŋʷ/	Avestan letter Ne × Avestan letter Ne 𐬥 n IPA: /n/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh.	Avestan letter Nye × Avestan letter Nye 𐬦 ń IPA: /ɲ/	Avestan letter Nne × Avestan letter Nne 𐬧 ṇ IPA: /ŋ/
Avestan letter Me × Avestan letter Me 𐬨 m IPA: /m/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Mem-Qoph.	Avestan letter Hme × Avestan letter Hme 𐬩 m̨ IPA: /m̥/, /mʰ/ Derived from Avestan letter Me (𐬩).	Avestan letter Yye × Avestan letter Yye 𐬪 ẏ IPA: /j/	Avestan letter Ye × Avestan letter Ye 𐬫 y IPA: /j/	Avestan letter doubled I × Avestan letter doubled I 𐬌𐬌 ii IPA: /ii̯/ Derived from Avestan letter I (𐬌).
Avestan letter Ve × Avestan letter Ve 𐬬 v IPA: /w/	Avestan letter double U × Avestan letter double U 𐬎𐬎 uu IPA: /uu̯/ Derived from Avestan letter U (𐬎).	Avestan letter Re × Avestan letter Re 𐬭 r IPA: /r/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh.	Avestan letter Le × Avestan letter Le 𐬮 l IPA: /l/	Avestan letter Se × Avestan letter Se 𐬯 s IPA: /s/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Samekh.
Avestan letter Ze × Avestan letter Ze 𐬰 z IPA: /z/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Zayin.	Avestan letter She × Avestan letter She 𐬱 š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Shin.	Avestan letter Zhe × Avestan letter Zhe 𐬲 ž IPA: /ʒ/	Avestan letter Shye × Avestan letter Shye 𐬳 š́ IPA: /ɕ/	Avestan letter Sshe × Avestan letter Sshe 𐬴 ṣ̌ IPA: /ʂ/
Avestan letter He × Avestan letter He 𐬵 h IPA: /h/

Ligatures

	Avestan ligature Sha × Avestan ligature Sha 𐬱𐬀 ša	=	Avestan letter A × Avestan letter A 𐬀 a IPA: /a/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Aleph-Heth.	+	Avestan letter She × Avestan letter She 𐬱 š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Shin.
	Avestan ligature Shc × Avestan ligature Shc 𐬱𐬗 šc	=	Avestan letter Ce × Avestan letter Ce 𐬗 c IPA: /t͡ʃ/	+	Avestan letter She × Avestan letter She 𐬱 š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Shin.
	Avestan ligature Sht × Avestan ligature Sht 𐬱𐬙 št	=	Avestan letter Te × Avestan letter Te 𐬙 t IPA: /t/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Taw.	+	Avestan letter She × Avestan letter She 𐬱 š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Shin.
	Avestan ligature Ah × Avestan ligature Ah 𐬀𐬵 ah	=	Avestan letter He × Avestan letter He 𐬵 h IPA: /h/	+	Avestan letter A × Avestan letter A 𐬀 a IPA: /a/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Aleph-Heth.

Epigraphy²

Av_Epi01

Verses 6-7  of Yasna 43 on the creation of the universe. c. 1556 CE. (Description - here)

Script comparison^1,3-6

Writing Script		Head of ox		House plan		Throw stick		Nile tilapia			Man with arms raised				Pear shaped mace				Two diagonal strokes	Plan of rectangular enclosure		Heart and trachea		Arm with downward facing palm		Hand	Crook	Water ripple	Cobra	Reed column		Eye		Mouth	Rush with shoots			Cord on stick	Head	Bow						Crossed sticks
Egyptian Hieroglyphs	Logography 32 c. BCE - 4 c. CE	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F1 𓃾 Head of Ox Ideogram for: kꜣ “cattle” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /kaʀ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /kaʀ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /kaʔ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /kɑ/ Conventional Anglicisation: ka		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. O1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. O1 𓉐 House plan Phonogram pr for: pr “house” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpaːɾuw/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpaːɾuw/ Reconstructed Medio-Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpaːɾəʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /poːɾ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /pɛr/ Conventional Anglicisation: per		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T14 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T14 𓌙 Throw stick Determinative for “foreign” for: qmꜣ “create” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /kɛmɑ/ Conventional Anglicisation: qema Ideogram in: ꜥꜣm “Asiatics” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /ɑːʔɑm/ Conventional Anglicisation: aam		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. K1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. K1 𓆛 Bulti fish Phonogram in for: int “bulti”			Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. A28 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. A28 𓀠 Man with arms raised Determinative for: ḥꜥi “rejoice”				Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T3 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T3 𓌉 Pear shaped mace Phonogram ḥḏ for: ḥḏ “mace”				Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z4 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z4 𓏭 Two diagonal strokes Determinative for duality	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. 06 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. O6 𓉗 Plan of rectangular enclosure Ideogram for: ḥwt “temple, tomb, enclosure” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈħaːwit/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈħaːwiʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈħoː(wə)/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /ħuːt/ Conventional Anglicisation: hut		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F35 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. F35 𓄤 Heart and windpipe Phonogram nfr for: nfr “good, beautiful” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnaːfiɾ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnaːfiʔ/ Reconstructed Medio-Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnaːfə/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈnoːfə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /nɛfɛr/ Conventional Anglicisation: nefer		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D42 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D42 𓂣 Arm with downward facing palm Determinative or ideogram for: mḥ “cubit” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /mɛħ/ Conventional Anglicisation: meh		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D46 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D46 𓂧 Hand Phonogram d Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼ/, /t͡ʃʼ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼ/, /t͡ʃʼ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d/ Ideogram for: ḏrt “hand” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈcʼaːɾat/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈtʼaːɾaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈtʼoːɾə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d͡ʒɛrɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: djeret	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. S39 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. S39 𓋿 Crook Phonogram ꜥwt for: ꜥwt “flock” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /ɑːuːt/ Conventional Anglicisation: aut	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. N35 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. N35 𓈖 Water ripple Phonogram n Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /n/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /n/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /n/, /l/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /n/	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. I10 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. I10 𓆓 Cobra Phonogram ḏ Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /cʼ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼ/, /tʼ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼ/, /tʼ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d͡ʒ/	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. R11 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. R11 𓊽 Reed column Phonogram ḏd for: ḏd “stable” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /cʼaːtʼ/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼaːʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /t͡ʃʼoːʔ/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /d͡ʒɛd/ Conventional Anglicisation: djed		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D4 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D4 𓁹 Eye Phonogram for: jrj “to do, make” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾit/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾiʔ/ Reconstructed Medio-Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈʔiːɾaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈʔiːɾə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /iri/ Conventional Anglicisation: iri Ideogram for: jrt “eye” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾat/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈjiːɾaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈʔiːɾə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /irɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: iret		Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D21 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D21 𓂋 Mouth Phonogram r Ideogram for: r “mouth” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ɾ/, /l/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ɾ/, /l/, /ʔ/, /j/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ɾ/, /l/, /ʔ/, /j/, ∅ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /r/	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. M22 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. M22 𓇑 Rush with roots Phonogram nḫb for: nḫbt “germination” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /nɛxbɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: nekhbet			Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. V24 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. V24 𓎗 Cord on stick Phonogram wḏ for: wḏ “command, decree” Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /wɛd͡ʒ/ Conventional Anglicisation: wedj	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D1 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. D1 𓁶 Head Phonogram tp Determinative or ideogram for: tp “head” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼap/, or possibly /cʼap/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼap/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /tʼap/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /tɛp/ Conventional Anglicisation: tepw	Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T9a × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. T9a 𓌓 Bow Phonogram pd/pḏ for: pḏt “bow” Reconstructed Old Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpiːcʼat/ Reconstructed Middle Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpiːtʼaʔ/ Reconstructed Late Egyptian pronunciation: /ˈpiːtʼə/ Modern Egyptological pronunciation: /pɛd͡ʒɛt/ Conventional Anglicisation: pedjet						Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z9 × Egyptian Hieroglyph Gardiner's Sign No. Z9 𓏴 Crossed sticks Phonogram swꜣ for: swꜣ “pass”
Book Pahlavi (Parent)	Abjad 5 c. CE - Present	Book Pahlavi letter Aleph-Heth × Book Pahlavi letter Aleph-Heth ʾ, h, x Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Aleph (𐭠).		Book Pahlavi letter Beth × Book Pahlavi letter Beth b Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Beth (𐭡).		Book Pahlavi letter Gimel-Daleth-Yodh × Book Pahlavi letter Gimel-Daleth-Yodh g, d, y Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Gimel (𐭢).		Old Book Pahlavi letter Daleth × Old Book Pahlavi letter Daleth d Used in historical spellings. Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Daleth (𐭣).			Book Pahlavi letter He × Book Pahlavi letter He h Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter He (𐭤).				Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh × Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh w, n, ʿ, r Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Waw-Ayin-Resh (𐭥).				Book Pahlavi letter Zayin × Book Pahlavi letter Zayin z Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Zayin (𐭆).							Book Pahlavi letter Kaph × Book Pahlavi letter Kaph k Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Kaph (𐭊). Old Book Pahlavi letter Kaph × Old Book Pahlavi letter Kaph k Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Kaph (𐭊).	Book Pahlavi letter Lamedh × Book Pahlavi letter Lamedh r Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Lamadh (𐭋). Book Pahlavi letter Stroked Lamadh × Book Pahlavi letter Stroked Lamadh l, r Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Lamadh (𐭋). Book Pahlavi letter Hooked Lamadh × Book Pahlavi letter Hooked Lamadh l Used in Aramaic heterograms. Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Lamadh (𐭋). Old Book Pahlavi letter Lamedh × Old Book Pahlavi letter Lamedh l Used in Aramaic heterograms. Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Lamadh (𐭋).	Book Pahlavi letter Mem-Qoph × Book Pahlavi letter Mem-Qoph m, q Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Mem (𐭌).		Book Pahlavi letter Samekh × Book Pahlavi letter Samekh s Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Samekh (𐭎). Alternate Book Pahlavi letter Samekh × Alternate Book Pahlavi letter Samekh s Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Samekh (𐭎).				Book Pahlavi letter Pe × Book Pahlavi letter Pe p Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Pe (𐭐).	Book Pahlavi letter Sadhe × Book Pahlavi letter Sadhe s Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Sadhe (𐭑).					Book Pahlavi letter Shin × Book Pahlavi letter Shin sh Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Shin (𐭔).						Book Pahlavi letter Taw × Book Pahlavi letter Taw t Derived from Inscriptional Pahlavi letter Taw (𐭕).
Avestan	Alphabet 5/6 c. CE - Present	Avestan letter A × Avestan letter A 𐬀 a IPA: /a/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Aleph-Heth.		Avestan letter Be × Avestan letter Be 𐬠 b IPA: /b/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Beth.				Avestan letter De × Avestan letter De 𐬛 d IPA: /d/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Gimel-Daleth-Yodh.							Avestan letter Ne × Avestan letter Ne 𐬥 n IPA: /n/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh. Avestan letter I × Avestan letter I 𐬌 i IPA: /ɪ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh. Avestan letter Re × Avestan letter Re 𐬭 r IPA: /r/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Waw-Nun-Ayin-Resh. Avestan letter Ae × Avestan letter Ae 𐬆 ə IPA: /ə/ Derived from Cursive Greek letter Epsilon (ε)..				Avestan letter Ze × Avestan letter Ze 𐬰 z IPA: /z/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Zayin.							Avestan letter Ke × Avestan letter Ke 𐬐 k IPA: /k/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Kaph. Avestan letter Ghe × Avestan letter Ghe 𐬖 γ IPA: /ɣ/ Resembles Psalter Pahlavi letter Kaph (𐮉)..		Avestan letter Me × Avestan letter Me 𐬨 m IPA: /m/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Mem-Qoph.		Avestan letter Se × Avestan letter Se 𐬯 s IPA: /s/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Samekh.				Avestan letter Pe × Avestan letter Pe 𐬞 p IPA: /p/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Pe.						Avestan letter She × Avestan letter She 𐬱 š IPA: /ʃ/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Shin.						Avestan letter Te × Avestan letter Te 𐬙 t IPA: /t/ Derived from Book Pahlavi letter Taw.

Lineage^1,5-14

Egyptian Hieroglyphs
↳Hieratic Egyptian
↳Proto-Sinaitic
↳Phoenician
↳Imperial Aramaic
↳Inscriptional Parthian
↳Inscriptional Pahlavi
↳Book Pahlavi
↳Avestan
↳Psalter Pahlavi (selected letter)
↳Avestan
↳Archaic Greek
↳Modern Greek (selected letter)
↳Avestan

Parsis

Commission artwork by Claud Kamalie (Fiverr page - here)

References

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2. Sims-Williams U. Digital Zoroastrian at the British Library [Internet]. Blogs.bl.uk. 2020 [cited 2024 May 25]. Available from: https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2020/01/digital-zoroastrian-at-the-british-library.html
3. Colless, Brian E (1990). "The proto-alphabetic inscriptions of Sinai". Abr-Nahrain / Ancient Near Eastern Studies. 28: 1–52. doi:10.2143/anes.28.0.525711
4. Colless, Brian E (1991). "The proto-alphabetic inscriptions of Canaan". Abr-Nahrain / Ancient Near Eastern Studies. 29: 18–66. doi:10.2143/anes.29.0.525718
5. Pandey, A. (2018). Preliminary proposal to encode Book Pahlavi in Unicode. Unicode.org. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2018/18276-book-pahlavi.pdf
6. Pournader, R. (2013). Preliminary proposal to encode the Book Pahlavi script in the Unicode Standard. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from Unicode.org website: https://unicode.org/L2/L2013/13141-book-pahlavi.pdf
7. Hoffmann K. Avestan language. Paul K, editor. Encyclopaedia Iranica. 1989;3:47–52.
8. Allen, J. P. (2014). Middle Egyptian: An introduction to the language and culture of hieroglyphs. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
9. Albright, William F. (1966). The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and their Decipherment.
10. Davidson, L. (2022, March 18). How the Phoenician Alphabet Revolutionised Language. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from historyhit.com website: https://www.historyhit.com/how-the-phoenician-alphabet-revolutionised-language/
11. Howard, M. C. (2012). Transnationalism in ancient and medieval societies: The role of cross-border trade and travel. McFarland & Company.
12. Shaked, Saul (1987). "Aramaic". Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 250–261. p. 251
13. Bakker, E. J. (Ed.). (2010). A companion to the ancient Greek language: Bakker/A companion to the ancient Greek language. Wiley-Blackwell.
14. Geiger W, Kuhn E, eds. (2002), Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, vol. I.1, Boston: Adamant